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Many of us assume that as we get older, our brain begins to deteriorate and lose some of its normal cognitive abilities. This is a misconception, however, and, with the exception of people who suffer from conditions like dementia and Alzheimer’s, the brain continues to remain vital and sharp well into a person’s old age.

You might be even more surprised to learn that the brain is actually capable of improving and growing in certain areas even once you have “passed your prime.”  Scientists have found that the brain has a remarkable ability to continue growing new neurons all the way up until the day you die. The brain’s capability to grow and adapt with time is known as neuroplasticity.

Too often we decide not to try new things or learn new skills; simply because we feel we are too old and thus incapable of learning anything or adapting to a new situation. However, thanks to science, you no longer have any excuse for not moving abroad, learning how to play the piano or following a new career path.

Although the brain does tend to slow down in certain areas as you get older, the misconception that the brain starts a steady decline once you hit 40 could not be further from the truth. In her book “The Secret Life of the Grown-up Brain,” science writer and New York Times editor, Barbara Strauch explains the discovery that the brain may actually be improving in certain areas as we age.

These areas include things such as inductive reasoning and verbal memory. In an interview with writer Tara Pope, Strauch commented “What we have by middle age are all sorts of connections and pathways that have been built up in our brain. Our brains are primed to navigate the world better because they’ve been navigating the world better for longer.”

So the next time you are feeling “too old” to try something new, just take in comfort in the fact that you can probably do most things better than a younger person can, simply because your brain already has the knowledge and resources you need to take on the challenge.

The reason many of us hold the view that age brings mental decline with it, is that up until quite recently, scientists still believed that brain cells simply died off and were never replaced, which would mean that as you age, you have fewer brain cells than you did in your youth.

Luckily this notion has been disproved, and we now know that despite the fact that we do tend to grow a bit more forgetful as we reach middle age, our brain continues to produce new brain cells and our capacity for learning is not diminished. Just because you can’t remember where you left your reading glasses or forgot your dentist’s appointment, doesn’t necessarily mean that your brain is on a downward spiral.

Dr. Monte Buchsbaum, director at the Neuroscience PET Laboratory has commented that “There isn’t much difference between a 25-year old brain and a 75-year old brain.” A study carried out with 6,000 volunteers over a period of ten years found that 70% maintained the same level of brain power as they grew older. Other studies have shown that using your brain can prevent it from deteriorating, which underlines the importance of not letting your brain retire too early.

One factor that seems to play a big part in how well your brain will age is your level of education. Psychologist Margie Lachman of Brandeis University has found that education can greatly slow down the rate at which your brain ages. She found that the brains of people past midlife, who have a college degree, seem to age much more slowly than people who never completed their college education.

But don’t despair if you never went to college, the study also showed that those who had had fewer years of schooling, but began working and maintaining their brainpower by keeping their brains active, had better memory and calculating skills than those who had not.

Their scores were equal to those who had completed a college education, so even if you can’t be bothered to return to school, make sure you keep your brain active in some way.

Some researchers believe that brainpower is made up of a number of different cognitive skills. These skills are generally divided into two categories; fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence is defined as the ability to come up with solutions that have nothing to do with previous experience, such as abstract thinking and pattern recognition. This type of brainpower is known to be strongest during a person’s 20s.

Crystallized intelligence is just the opposite. It can be defined as skills that come from education and experience, such as a wide vocabulary, inductive reasoning and sound judgement. Fluid intelligence is often thought to be influenced by factors like genetics, while crystallized intelligence can be influenced by experience, personality, culture and opportunities.

Also ensure that you get sufficient sleep and maintain a healthy diet with all the nutrition your brain needs, such as antioxidants, Omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and high-tyrosine proteins.

This makes sense, as no one can deny that certain things get better with age, like the ability to solve disputes and think logically in a complicated situation. If you are older you can probably clearly see how much you have changed over the years. You are likely a much calmer, level-headed individual, who takes the time to consider each factor before making decisions. On the other hand, if you are younger, you probably have at least one or two older friends or relatives who you look up to and go to for advice when you are facing a difficult problem.

Studies have shown that despite the difficulties that those in their 40s, 50s and 60s face, such as juggling work with raising kids and caring for aging parents, they tend to have a much more positive attitude towards life than their younger counterparts. This stems from the fact that they feel more in control of their lives and are well aware of what they can do to alter their circumstances.

Researchers suspect that the reason for the relative ease with which they are able to navigate difficult situations in a calm and composed manner is that their brains have developed the ability to minimize negative thoughts and focus on the positive things in life.

A study carried out at the University of Wisconsin showed that younger adults had stronger emotional reactions to upsetting images. The researchers used brain imaging to look into the brain and see the differences between the emotional reactions of those in different age groups.

They found that in young adults, the amygdala, which regulates emotions, would light up when they were shown both negative and positive images. The middle-aged adults, however, would react only to the positive images. When they viewed negative images, their brains seemed to ignore them, screen them out or downplay the negativity.

Another similar study found that older people have a more positive outlook on life in general. The researchers monitored the volunteer’s facial expressions and eye blinks while they viewed a series of emotionally charged photos. Interestingly enough, the biggest difference between the younger and older volunteers was noted when the researchers showed them neutral photographs.

The older volunteers tended to see the neutral images in a more positive light, despite the fact that the images were neither negative nor positive. This positive predisposition is known as the “positivity offset.”

Perhaps this will give you something to look forward to. While life may not necessarily be getting easier, your outlook on life, and thus the way you experience it, will change and become more positive.

Contrary to popular belief that the brain stops producing or begins losing brain cells as it ages, a group of researchers at the University of Toronto have proven that the brain continues to grow during middle age. They found that white matter, which is made up of bundles of nerve transmitters that are insulated by a fatty molecule called myelin, keeps growing, thus providing the brain with “reserves.”

A group of researchers from McGill University in Montreal analyzed the brains of licensed London taxi drivers between the ages of 32-62. The researchers found that the taxi drivers, who had extensive experience in navigating their taxi along many difficult routes throughout the city of London, had a much larger posterior hippocampus than those in the control group, and those who had fewer years of experience with taxi driving.

The hippocampus is directly involved in the storing of memory, and studies like these show that regardless of a person’s age, the brain is capable of growing and adapting according to a the environment and a person’s specific needs.

Clearly, when it comes to brain power, you just have to use it or lose it. If you want to keep your mind sharp well into your old age, you can’t give in to the mindset that you have passed your age of usefulness and can no longer be expected to learn or grow. With age comes wisdom, but this will only apply if you take care of yourself and keep your brain active, both mentally and physically.

According to Barbara Strauch, the two best things you can do to keep your brain healthy are regular exercise and mental stimulation. Studies have shown that physical exercise, such running or brisk walking, can improve your brain power and stimulate the growth of new brain cells.

Also ensure that you get sufficient sleep and maintain a healthy diet with all the nutrition your brain needs, such as antioxidants, Omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and high-tyrosine proteins.

Whatever you do, don’t sign your brain off as being too old to handle the new. Once you do that, it really is the beginning of the end. With all your years of experience and the knowledge you have stored up, you are well-equipped to take on new learning challenges and continue growing and evolving even as you age.

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Want to learn to play piano but don’t have the patience to practice? Or maybe you always wanted to play baseball but just can’t seem to hit the ball. Now, imagine that you could learn instantaneously, without putting in any conscious effort. Seems pretty farfetched right? Not quite. According to scientists at Boston University and the ATR Computational Neuroscience Laboratories in Kyoto, Japan, this may soon be possible with the help of brain technology.

The scientists found that by using decoded functional magnetic resonance imaging or fMRI, they were able to get through to a person’s visual cortex and influence brain activity patterns. These patterns were changed to match a previously known state, which enabled the brain to improve its performance during certain visual tasks.

Feeling lost yet? Don’t worry; it’s fairly easy to understand once you get your head around the basic idea of how it works. Throughout the study the subject’s brain patterns were altered to match the brain patterns of someone who already knows how to do something, like play piano or hit a homerun.

This process can be likened to the popular 1999 movie “The Matrix,” where Neo is simply programmed to learn what he needs to know in a matter of minutes, from fast-paced martial arts techniques to in-depth knowledge into a range of obscure subjects.

This is just a movie you may be thinking, and of course, it is unlikely that we will ever be able to plug ourselves into a computer and upload information to our brains. However, brain technology provides us with a whole slew of new opportunities we previously would never have dreamed of.

Throughout the study, the process of learning was followed and documented. Takeo Watanabe, a neuroscientist and lead researcher, commented “Adult early visual areas are sufficiently plastic to cause visual perception learning.” Now, just to clarify, the term “plastic” does not refer to plastic as you might be picturing it.

What it is really referring to is the term neuroplasticity, which is the brain’s ability to change and adapt with different situations. Watanabe’s quote can be explained as follows; when a person learns they gradually begin to build up and store pictures inside the brain. These pictures first begin to be documented in the brain as simple lines, shapes colors, edges and motions.

As time goes on, the brain becomes capable of filling these pictures in with more details, which allows you to have the full picture locked away in memory.

The scientists paid special attention to the early visual areas in the brain that influence visual performance and learning. Previous studies have already indicated that there may be a connection between improving visual performance and greater learning abilities.

However, this was the first study to examine whether or not these early visual areas are able to influence visual perceptual learning. The brain is a powerful machine, and by learning how to harness its power properly and use it to its full potential, you could find yourself capable of all kinds of things that you wouldn’t have previously imagined yourself capable of, kind of like Neo in The Matrix.

During the recent study, Kazuhisa Shibata, of the Boston University designed and tested his new method to aid learning. The method uses decoded fMRI feedback to activate certain patterns in the early visual areas of the brain that are brought on by certain visual features in a particular region of the brain. The scientists studied how the activation pattern is caused, and whether or not repetitions could improve a particular visual feature.

The scientists believe, although the study is not conclusive, that this new form of learning will significantly improve people’s abilities when it comes to tasks that call for visual performance. This can include many things from playing musical instruments to becoming more adept at a certain sport, or even helping people with memory loss to recall certain memories that were previously lost to them.

As time goes on, the brain becomes capable of filling these pictures in with more details, which allows you to have the full picture locked away in memory.

Another interesting find that emerged from the study was the fact that this method of learning appears to work even when the subjects were unaware of what they were meant to be learning. Yes you read that correctly. You may soon be able to learn great new skills without even knowing it.

The researchers discovered that just inducing neural activation patterns that worked together with a particular visual feature allowed the subjects to improve their performance on that feature without even having been told what they were being taught and what visual feature they should be focusing on in order to improve their performance.

This idea was developed by Watanabe along with fellow researchers Mitsuo Kawato, who is the director at the ATR lab, and Yuka Sasaki, who works as a neuroscience assistant at a general hospital in Massachusetts.

Watanabe commented about this aspect of the study saying “We found that subjects were not aware of what was to be learned while behavioral data obtained before and after the neurofeedback training showed that subjects’ visual performance improved specifically for the target orientation, which was used in the neurofeedback training.”

Undoubtedly, movie scenarios where people are being programmed to do evil are quick to enter your mind when you think of this new unconscious learning method, and an aspect of this study that may cause some concern in your mind is how it could potentially be misused.

If you found yourself asking yourself this question you are not alone and the question has been raised on a number of occasions, even by the scientists themselves. On this subject, Kaweto commented “We have to be careful so that this method is not used in an unethical way.”

This new unconscious learning technique has naturally also sparked questions about whether or not hypnosis would be used together with brain technology as a way to improve learning in the future.

Cognitive hypnotherapy has been around for a while, although it has remained somewhat controversial due to the misconception that subjects who are placed under hypnosis would be easy to influence without their prior knowledge or consent.

Therapists who use hypnotherapy in their treatments maintain that this would not be possible, and that what they do is simply to help individuals to tap into their subconscious and come up with solutions on their own. Cognitive hypnotherapy is already widely known as a way to help people manage the stress and anxiety in their lives, but the use of it as a learning method has not yet received a lot of attention.

There is one notable study on this subject however, were the Metropolitan Police Training School carried out a trial with a group of students who had been underperforming throughout the semester. The school is known for its intense training programs that often result in high failure and dropout rates. Because of this, police trainers were interested to see if there was a way to improve their students’ performance.

Rebecca and Trevor Silvester came up with a training method that used hypnosis to help students learn faster and more efficiently. They found that after their students had received just two and a half hours of cognitive hypnotherapy and extra coaching from their teachers, they began to show up to 30% improvement on their test scores.

The researchers at Boston University admitted that hypnosis or a form of automated learning could possibly be one of the outcomes of their research, although they were currently simply focusing on visual perception learning. The method would still need to be tested on other types of learning to see if it would be as effective.

This type of brain technology is expected to be used for different types of learning, including improved memory, motor and rehabilitation skills. However, as anxious as you probably are to get started with this brain training, you will have to wait and see how the science will develop.

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Like most people, you probably believe that consuming sugar, in the form of an energy drink or a candy bar will give you a boost of energy. We are so sure of this, that we rely on sugar to get us through those last hours at work or give us a quick energy fix before our workout. However, recent studies have shown that sugar may have just the opposite effect.

A study carried out at Loughborough University showed that while energy drinks with high sugar content may give us a sugar rush, the effect is short-lived and soon gives way to feelings of drowsiness and fatigue.

During the study, a group of ten adults was studied to determine the effects of different energy drinks on their levels of concentration and wakefulness. The ten volunteers were asked to restrict their sleep to just five hours the night before they participated in the study so that they would be more tired than usual.

The volunteers were given lunch, an hour after which they were given either an energy drink containing 42 grams of sugar and 30 milligrams of caffeine or an identical tasting drink that contained neither sugar nor caffeine. They were then asked to complete a monotonous test that lasted for 90 minutes.

The test was carried out during the time of day when most people begin to feel a dip in their energy levels. The participants were examined to determine their level of sleepiness and ability to concentrate on the task at hand.

During the first 30 minutes of the test, all volunteers showed equal reaction times and made the same number of errors. However, 50 minutes into the test, those who had consumed the drink containing caffeine and sugar began to show signs of sleepiness and had slower reaction times than those who had consumed the “placebo” drink.

Professor Jim Horne of the Sleep Research Center at Loughborough University commented that while consuming a large amount of sugar may give you a temporary sugar rush; this is ineffective in combating feelings of drowsiness. He advises people looking to beat afternoon sleepiness to avoid soft drinks high in sugar. He also suggests that a caffeinated drink, like coffee or tea, combined with a quick catnap is a more effective way to stay alert.

So why then are energy drinks promoted as an effective method of boosting energy levels? Studies have shown that energy drinks do little to physically energize the body, but rather stimulate the brain and give an athlete incentive to push through a physically challenging routine.

The reason for these seemingly contradictory reports is that while energy drinks do work to adjust low blood sugar and give the brain a signal to push the body into completing a physical challenge, they are less effective at stimulating a tired and sleepy brain.

So while an athlete may find that drinking an energy drink that contains a lot of sugar gives them incentive to carry on, someone sitting down in the office or in a car is not moving and therefore has no use for the extra energy, the brain is still tired and needs to rest.

Another explanation for the fact that sugar causes sleepiness lies in understanding the orexin system. This is a neuropeptide, or molecule, that is responsible for regulating a number of processes in the brain, from tiredness and drowsiness to feelings of hunger. A lack of this neuropeptide can cause a wide range of problems from obesity and narcolepsy to cataplexy, a condition that causes a weakening of the skeletal muscles when an individual experiences strong emotions such as sadness or a bout of laughter.

Studies carried out on mice have shown that higher levels of orexin can also work to increase the metabolism. In the same way, having low levels of orexin can cause you to feel tired and sluggish. Previous studies with monkeys have shown that sleep deprivation causes the orexin cells to become inactive. Scientists found that the exhaustion can be combated by simply injecting the peptide.

So sugar rich diets can literally make a person both lazy and fat.

Orexin is a bit like your body’s gas pedal, if it goes up or down even slightly, your body’s activity levels are affected. Some studies have shown that an increase in the body’s levels of glucose can cause the orexin’s activity levels to plummet. This could explain why you feel a dip in energy levels after eating a lunch, particularly one that is high in carbohydrates.

It could also be responsible for the ever increasing levels of obesity throughout the Western world, because consuming refined sugars, in the form of candy bars and sodas, can cause the levels of orexin in the brain to be reduced, which in turn reduces a person’s energy levels and prevents them from being physically active. So sugar rich diets can literally make a person both lazy and fat.

But don’t worry, having your lunch break at noon doesn’t necessarily mean you will be sleeping at your desk the following hour. It is just a matter of eating the right things. Research has shown, that unlike sugar, protein can actually increase the orexin levels in your brain. Of course, this shouldn’t come as a big surprise to most people, as for a number of years now many dieticians have been promoting diets high in protein as being beneficial to weight loss.

This is also why it is advisable to skip out on snacks high in sugar or carbohydrates and choose protein rich snacks like nuts. A study carried out at Cambridge University also showed that sugar, when consumed in combination with protein, no longer has the same effect on the levels of orexin in the brain.

This was determined through a series of different tests. The first test was carried out using orexin cells in a petri dish. When these were mixed with amino acids, they became active. The next test examined the effects of egg whites on various live animals. When the animals had consumed the egg whites, they became active in their cages and their brains showed increased orexin activity. This effect was observed for a number of hours following the consumption of the egg whites.

In another test, the scientists first gave the animals a protein and an amount of glucose simultaneously. The scientists found that even after consuming the glucose, the animal’s orexin levels were increased. However, when the animals were first given the protein, and then the glucose shortly afterwards, they still experienced a decrease in orexin levels.

So if you absolutely must have that chocolate muffin at on your lunch break, make sure you get some protein in with it to combat the inhibitory effects of the sugar on orexin. These studies show that the body responds very differently to different sources of energy, and what a meal is made up of will greatly influence your body’s performance and energy levels. The types of calories you consume are very important, so simply counting calories won’t do much as far as weight loss goes.

Don’t focus on the amount of calories you will be consuming, instead take a minute to consider the nutritional value of what you will eat, and how it will affect your energy levels and cognitive abilities. Sure, a Big Mac burger may contain protein, but what about the fries, white bread and soda that come along with it?

Next time you are feeling a bit sleepy at your desk, don’t reach for an energy drink or candy bar as these things will only make you even more tired. Take the time to plan your snacks and lunches ahead of time, rather than just heading to the cafeteria and ordering the first thing you see.

Prepare a tuna or egg salad to take with you to work, or keep a stash of almonds in your desk to stave off hunger pangs and stay alert throughout the day. Finding little ways to improve your diet will make a big difference in your life, keeping you active and healthy. If you notice that you always feel tired and unable to concentrate at work despite consuming more protein and less sugar, the problem may simply lie in the fat that you need more sleep.

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Like most people, when you think of a psychopath, you probably have a picture in your head of a purely evil monster who set to inflict pain and suffering on his victims. However, recent studies have shown that there may be more to such disturbing psychotic behavior than just an evil person with the clear intent of causing harm.

A study that was carried out at the University of Wisconsin-Madison showed that psychopaths actually have deformities in their brains, which may cause them to lack the normal emotions and conscience that ordinary people have.

The study carried out brain scans on a group of prisoners who were diagnosed as being psychopaths. The scans showed significant differences between the psychopath’s brains and the brains of those in the control group.

Those who were diagnosed with psychopathy appeared to have reduced connections between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala. In plain English, the part of the brain that is responsible for emotions like guilt and sympathy is not properly connected to the part that is responsible for feelings of anxiety or fear.

These results explain a lot about why psychopaths often act like robots, displaying impulsive, unfeeling and antisocial behavior.

Another similar study was carried out by Dr. Kent Kiel of the University of New Mexico. He used a high tech brain scan to study the brain of Brian Dugan, a convicted rapist and serial killer. With the help of the brain scanner, Kiel studied two things, the function of Dugan’s brain and its density.

The scan showed low levels of density in the para-limbic system, which regulates a person’s behavior. This indicates that the brain of a psychopath is underdeveloped. Another brain scan was carried out while Dugan was shown disturbing images such as people suffering. His brain showed little to no activity in the area where emotion should have been generated.

Kiel believes that psychopaths simply lack the ability to feel emotion, in much the same way that someone might be intellectually challenged and have difficulty understanding a simple math problem. He commented in an interview with the BBC saying, “I tend to see psychopaths as someone suffering from a disorder, so I wouldn’t use the word evil to describe them.”

The psychopath Brian Dugan showed no emotion when talking about his crimes and, reportedly, has difficulty understanding that what he did was wrong or even why people would care.

A 2009 study carried out by a group of researchers from the Institute of Psychiatry at Kings College in London found similar results when using imaging techniques known as DT-MRI. Their results showed that psychopaths have a number of significant psychological differences in their brains.

Although neurologists have always suspected that there may be some differences between the brain of an ordinary person and that of a psychopath, it has only been recently that technology has been advanced enough to identify the exact differences.

Those who suffer from such a disorder are emotionally stunted. Psychopaths tend to be fixated on one goal, which leads them to ignore all normal social cues. They are simply unable to receive the cue from their brain that would normally tell them that it is wrong to take something that doesn’t belong to them or hurt someone to get what they want.

…psychopaths simply lack the ability to feel emotion, in much the same way that someone might be intellectually challenged and have difficulty understanding a simple math problem.

These findings are expected to change the way that psychopaths are dealt with by the law, specifically in regards to the death penalty. Some are concerned that psychopaths will not be sent to jail if the law is changed to allow them to plead insanity. Up until now, however, no changes have been made in regards to the way psychopaths are sentenced, and it is likely that further studies will be required before action is taken.

Dr. Kent Kiehl hopes that treatments for psychopaths can be further developed, although he does not believe that science should focus on those who have already committed terrible crimes, but rather develop a treatment to intervene with those who display signs and symptoms of psychopathy.

Kiehl believes that children with these brain disorders already display signs of psychopathy at a young age, when they do things such as hurting animals, starting fires, showing overly aggressive behavior or seriously injuring friends or family without reason.

Unfortunately, parents and teachers are not equipped to deal with such behavior and they attempt to help a child understand that what they have done is wrong. However, because of their emotionally underdeveloped brains, they are unable to see why they are being punished, which may only serve to make them angry or confused and thus more likely to do another person harm.

Kiehl hopes that by identifying such behavior at an early age, proper treatments can be developed and psychotic behavior can be prevented from escalating. Experts have estimated that around one percent of the population can be identified as psychopaths; while up to 25 percent of those in correctional facilities are thought suffer from this disorder.

Perhaps even more unnerving is the fact that a recent study that was carried out by Paul Babiak, a psychologist from New York, suggests that one in every 25 business leaders is psychopathic. These business professionals appear to lead fairly normal lives, and are quite capable of displaying normal behavior and fitting in with their surroundings.

This is not to say that everyone who has committed a terrible crime is a psychopath and has an underdeveloped brain. There are undoubtedly also evil people out there who commit crimes simply because they are damaged or angry and not necessarily because of any deformities in their brains. However, this new research is enlightening and could go a long way to treating those with psychopathic tendencies before their behavior has a chance to worsen.

Professors Joseph Newman and Michael Koenigs who led the study at the University of Wisconsin-Madison are also optimistic that by carrying out further research the scientific community will be able to uncover more aspects of the disorder as well as develop better, more efficient treatments both for preventing and curing psychopathic individuals.

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Whether you are considering becoming a vegetarian because of the health benefits you associate with this diet, or practice it simply to avoid cruelty to animals, it is important to be aware of the possible health risks involved.

Even if you are not a vegetarian yourself, it’s highly likely that you know at least a few vegetarians or vegans, who tend to make dinner parties a little bit more complicated. Although there are many different types of vegetarian or vegan diets, a vegetarian diet normally excludes all meat, poultry and fish, while a vegan diet even leaves out all dairy products and eggs.

Vegetarian diets are generally thought to be healthier than traditional carnivorous diets and are usually promoted as the healthier way of eating. However, the problem with this is that many vegetarians, both in Western and non Western countries do not know enough about following a well-balanced diet that excludes animal products. This often results in some important nutrients being left out of their daily diet.

The main concern in regards to vegetarianism is that those who follow such a diet do not consume enough, if any, of the essential vitamin B12. This vitamin plays a big role in the development and maintenance of the nervous system, as well as the production and formation of DNA and red blood cells.

A vitamin B12 deficiency could lead to a number of health problems including anemia, low blood pressure, incontinence and depression. But perhaps one of the biggest dangers is that a lack of vitamin B12 can lead to serious cognitive problems such as Alzheimer’s.

Problems caused by a lack of vitamin B12 may not show up until years later, so they are generally not associated with vegetarianism. However, even someone who has only shortly tried a vegetarian diet may be at increased risk of cognitive problems like Alzheimer’s.

A deficiency of vitamin B12 is usually classified as less than 250 picograms per millimeter of blood serum. Like most people, you probably aren’t sure what this means and therefore have no way of measuring whether or not you are getting enough.

Generally speaking though, if you are a carnivore, you probably have nothing to worry about, because foods such as red meat, turkey and shell fish are all high in vitamin B12. Dairy products and other animal products such as eggs contain smaller amounts of the vitamin.

Adults are recommended to get at least 2.4 micrograms of the vitamin every day, while pregnant or breastfeeding mothers should consume around 2.8 micrograms. Vegetarians will have more difficulty getting the vitamin, because it is not present in large enough quantities in any natural plant products.

If you are following a diet that does not include fish, meat or milk, you should definitely consider taking daily vitamin B12 supplements to prevent loss of brain power.

Infants and young children can develop a vitamin B12 deficiency in as little as one year, so if you are a mother it is important that you carefully consider the pros and cons of a vegetarian diet during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
Vitamin B12, in animal products, is absorbed easily due to the fact that it is combined with proteins and released b stomach acids and enzymes. This should be taken into consideration if you are planning to take supplements in order to get the necessary amount of vitamin B12 in your diet.

Another factor that must be considered by vegetarians who are looking to increase their intake of the vitamin is that although certain organisms and algae do contain a form of vitamin B12, the body is not able to use it in this form. Many vegetarians believe that if they consume plenty of foods like seaweed and barley grass, they will be getting their vitamin B12, but, unfortunately, these have been shown to be unreliable sources of the vitamin.

To make matters even more complicated, the type of vitamin B12 that is present in things like seaweed does show up in the blood during a blood test, despite the fact that the body cannot absorb it in this form. So you may think that you are getting your brain food, and a blood test may even show that you are, but the danger remains that if you are not consuming it in the right form, it won’t do you any good.

A study by a group of scientists at the Oxford University showed that taking daily vitamin B supplements could help to delay the onset of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. The researchers found that the neurological decline of the brain was reduced by nearly half after the study’s participants began taking daily vitamin B supplements.

The study was carried out with a group of volunteers over the duration of two years. One group was given tablets containing vitamins B6 and B12. A second group was given a placebo. The volunteers took these tablets every day.

At the end of the study the scientists found that those who had been taking the vitamin B supplements showed 30% less brain shrinkage than their counterparts who had been taking the placebo. Those who had taken vitamin B tablets had just 0.76% brain shrinkage after one year, while the other group showed 1.08%.

If you are following a diet that does not include fish, meat or milk, you should definitely consider taking daily vitamin B12 supplements to prevent loss of brain power. You also need to realize that your body is unable to absorb all of the vitamin B12 that it receives, so it is necessary to get larger doses of the vitamin than your body actually needs.

Aside from tablets, there are also injections or skin patches available for those who suffer from a vitamin B12 deficiency. For those who cannot or don’t enjoy swallowing pills and tablets, there are also vitamin B12 lollipops.

This is not to say that a vegetarian diet cannot be healthy, and in fact, studies have shown that diets that contain large amounts of vegetables and fruits have many health benefits, including a reduced risk of cancer and heart disease.

However, without taking the extra steps to ensure that you are still getting the essential vitamins and nutrients found in animal products, you could be setting yourself up for some health issues down the line. Before starting any new diet, you should always be aware of the pros and cons, and take the necessary measures to keep yourself healthy in the long run.

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We all chew gum from time to time, whether to keep our breath fresh or simply to have something to do when we are bored or stressed. But what makes us enjoy this odd habit so much?  There is no nutritional value to it, your teachers forbid it in school and your employees abhor it in the workplace.

Some people have even had concerns that chewing gum excessively may cause stomach ulcers due to the fact that your stomach prepares itself to receive food, but never gets any (this has not been proven). However, scientists have finally discovered one very significant benefit to chewing gum that just may cause your teachers and employers to rethink their stance on the matter.

The next time your brain is feeling a bit sluggish during those last few hours at work, try chewing a piece of gum instead of topping up your tenth cup of coffee. Although this may not sound like a very sound solution, research has shown that chewing gum can help give your brain a boost by improving your memory and stimulating your cognitive skills.

A recent study carried out by a group of psychologists at the St. Lawrence University found that difficult tasks became easier when the subjects would chew gum. The researchers studied a group of 159 volunteers who were asked to complete various tasks, such as repeating words and numbers backwards and solving complex logic puzzles.

The volunteers were divided into two groups, and each group completed the same tasks. The only difference was that one group was chewing gum, while the other was not. The volunteers that chewed gum while working on these tasks scored much higher on all the tests, except for the one on verbal fluency. The gum apparently had no influence on this one.

The only setback with chewing gum is that its effects apparently only last for about 20 minutes. The volunteers who chewed gum did outperform the other group, but this effect only lasted for the first part of the test, after which they performed identically to the volunteers who chewed nothing.

So perhaps if you are planning to chew gum during your test, you should save it for the hardest parts. Or, if you want to keep sharp at work, chew it at the end of the day; after all, those last few minutes are always the hardest to get through.

A similar study showed that chewing gum may also work to reduce feelings of stress, or at least help people to cope when they find themselves in stressful situations.

Another study, carried out at the University of Northumbria in Newcastle upon Tyne, found that chewing gum helps people retain information better and can improve memory skills by up to 35%. The researchers used three groups of volunteers, one group chewed gum, the other pretended to chew by simply going through the motions of chewing, and the other group chewed nothing.

All three groups completed the same 25-minute test, which focused on things involving short-term memory, such as recalling pictures and numbers. The group that chewed gum performed better than both other groups, while the group that had only pretended to chew performed slightly better than the group that chewed nothing.

The researchers are not entirely sure why chewing gum has this effect on the brain, although there are a number of theories. One theory is that chewing gum elevates the heart rate slightly, which means that the brain receives more oxygen.

Another theory is that chewing causes insulin to be produced in order to aid digestion, and insulin is also thought to stimulate the part of the brain that recalls things and retains information.

Recently, scientists at the University of Coventry discovered that chewing mint flavored gum appeared to drive away feelings of drowsiness. The study assessed volunteers by using a Pupillographic Sleepiness Test, which works by measuring the oscillations of the pupils.

This makes gum a better stimulant than coffee, because you get the feelings of alertness without the adverse side effects or caffeine crash later. So make sure you stock up on mint flavored chewing gum for your next long-distance drive.

A similar study showed that chewing gum may also work to reduce feelings of stress, or at least help people to cope when they find themselves in stressful situations. How exactly it works is not known, but it could simply be due to the fact that the chewing motion gives your brain something else to focus on other than the stressful situation you are in.

The researcher, from Cardiff University, had a group of volunteers perform a series of cognitive tests. Of course, one group was given chewing gum and the other was not.

However, the group that chewed gum was asked to perform the tests in a room where a loud screeching noise was turned on. The group without the chewing gum was allowed to perform the test in a peaceful and noise-free room.

Despite the fact that the group chewing gum had been subjected to a stressful and loud environment while taking the test, they still outperformed the group without chewing gum. They seemed more attentive, had faster reaction times. Aside from this, they were also in better spirits than the group that had performed the test in a quiet environment.

With all this good news about chewing gum, why would you ever want to work or study without it again? Unlike coffee, it doesn’t require any preparation, it is low calorie and it is not addictive (as far as we know).

If you are still feeling a bit skeptical about the benefits of chewing gum, just remember that you have nothing to lose by trying it. In the worst case scenario, even if it doesn’t boost your brain power, you will still have fresh breath. Just don’t get too carried away, as gum can have a laxative effect if consumed in large amounts.

On the other hand, if you don’t feel like chewing gum or don’t have any handy, just go through the motions of chewing to boost your performance. It may not work as well, but it’s worth a try if you are in a tight spot with an exam or difficult situation at work.

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Soccer players are often praised and admired for their skillful control of the ball with headers, but recent research has shown that soccer players who frequently head the ball may run a high risk of developing brain damage.

The study, carried out by Dr. Michael Lipton of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York, found that soccer players who headed a ball on average of 1,000 to 1,500 times in a year were more likely to display damage in certain areas of the brain, including those areas responsible for memory, attention and organizing.

Soccer players who headed the ball less than 1,000 times a year did not display the same brain changes. These findings were reported at the 2011 annual meeting of the Radiological Society of North America.

While 1,000 times a year may sound like a lot, researchers say that this comes down to just a few times a day. For those who play soccer on a regular basis, reaching this number is easily done.

The brain injuries in soccer players appear to build up over a period of time, rather than immediately after one header. Dr. Lipton has commented that while he does not support the idea of banning heading from soccer, he is interested to find out if a safe threshold can be defined for the amount of times a player can head the ball.

During the study, the researchers used brain scans to analyse the effects of headers on 38 amateur soccer players. With the help of a brain scan, the players’ brain tissue was examined. The researchers found that players who headed the ball around 1,320 times a year were more likely to show brain damage than those who headed the ball fewer times. Dr. Lipton reported that the brain damage displayed by these players appeared similar to concussions or TBI (Traumatic Brain Injury).

Soccer or football is by far the world’s most popular sport, being played by 250 million people in over 200 countries worldwide. Determining how often a player can head a ball before it leads to brain damage is important to ensure the long-term safety of both professional and amateur players.

The researchers found that players who headed the ball around 1,320 times a year were more likely to show brain damage than those who headed the ball fewer times.

Sports injuries, in particular brain injuries are beginning to receive more coverage these days, as many sports organizations attempt to minimize the risks involved in certain sports. During an amateur soccer game, research has shown that balls can travel as fast as 55 kilometers, and during a professional game that speed could be more than twice as much.

The English soccer player Jeff Astle is thought to have been killed by excessive heading. The 59-year-old passed away in 2002 after suffering from cognitive problems following his career as a striker with West Bromwich Albion and the English national team.

Coroner Andrew Haigh ruled that Astle’s death was the result of a degenerative brain disease caused by frequent heading of the heavy leather balls that were used during that time. While soccer balls today are generally thought to be safer, there is still some speculation about whether or not this is true.

Research carried out at the University of Glasgow showed that heavier leather soccer balls and modern-day ones have the same impact on a player’s head. The study used cameras to capture images of the two balls as they hit a wall at a high speed. Both balls collapsed to nearly half their diameter on impact with the wall. According to this study, the modern soccer ball is not actually safer than the old-style leather ball, as it has the same amount of force when it hits a players head at 100 kilometers an hour.

Studies on the subject are not conclusive, however, and researchers agree that further research will be necessary to determine whether or not the brain damage is actually caused by heading the ball.

Dr. Andrew Rutherford, researcher at Keele University, says the evidence up till now has not been convincing enough. He is of the opinion that the brain damage found in frequent soccer players may be caused by the impact of the players’ heads clashing when they jump up to get the ball, rather than the impact with the ball itself.

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Crossword puzzles have been seen as a way to improve the brain’s cognitive skills since they first became popular in the early 1900s. Recently, however, research has shown that crosswords may not be as effective an exercise for your brain as other modern brain training games, particularly in the case of older adults.

The 2011 Iowa Healthy and Active Minds Study, examined a group of 681 volunteers all aged 50 or above. The volunteers were divided into four groups, one of which was given ten hours of training with supervision. The other group received just one session of brain training, which was followed by another session 11 months later.

The third group did a session of brain training at home with no supervision, while the fourth group took part in a training session involving computerized crossword puzzles with supervision.
The progress was documented by measuring the volunteers’ field of vision, which is known to shrink with age, but can be improved with practice. The results showed that those who had taken part in the computerized brain training sessions showed a higher rate of improvement when compared to the crossword puzzle group, even after not having trained for eight weeks.

Previous studies have always shown that while brain training games are effective to an extent, they are no more effective than crossword puzzles.

In 2009 a study carried out at the request of the consumer group Which?, found crosswords to be equally as effective in keeping the brain sharp as celebrity endorsed brain training games such as the Nintendo DS game, which is said to be useful for improving memory and even preventing dementia.

The game, priced at around $100, is said to stimulate the frontal cortex region, which would increase the blood flow in that area of the brain. However, the group of scientists who carried out the study on these games concluded that there was insufficient evidence to back these claims.

New study does seem to indicate that brain training games that have been specifically designed to exercise the brain are more effective than other recreational activities.

They were also of the opinion that along with crossword puzzles, a healthy diet and everyday recreational activities, such as chatting with friends or browsing the Internet, have the same effect on a person’s blood flow, making the game redundant.

The debate about whether or not brain training games are superior to more traditional brain training methods such as crossword puzzles has been an ongoing one in the scientific community. But the new study does seem to indicate that brain training games that have been specifically designed to exercise the brain are more effective than other recreational activities.

Despite the seeming contradiction between these two main studies, some critics are quick to point out the fact that both studies may be correct in their own way.

While brain training games may work well for preventing memory loss in older adults, they may not have the same effect on younger people. Similarly, while crosswords may be stimulating to the brain, their effects are not as far reaching in older adults as they are in younger people.

Brain training games are already used in some driving schools to help students get an insight into driving, as well as to test their reaction times. A program called AAA Roadwise Review has been designed with the goal of helping old adults evaluate their driving skills.

The training game takes into account both the mental and physical aspects that are involved in the driving of a vehicle, and in particular it studies abilities that are known to decline as a person gets older.

Another similar program named “DriveFit” has been developed for use by driving instructors. Its aim is to allow driving instructors assess their student’s weak points before they even step into the car.

Brain training games Vs crossword puzzles remains a controversial subject, particularly because of the differing results that different studies have brought forth.

With more research into the matter, however, it is likely that brain training games will become more accepted as a way to keep people’s brain sharp, particularly for older adults, whereas crossword puzzles are most likely to remain what they are best known for being – a purely recreational activity.

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Although we all suffer from it occasionally, for some people, insomnia is more than just an irritating condition strikes the night before a big job interview or important meeting. It can be a debilitating condition that, if left untreated, could even lead to a range of more serious health problems from heart disease to Alzheimer’s.

The name insomnia is said to come from the Latin words “in,” which means “not,” and “somnus,” which means “sleep.” The main characteristics of insomnia are difficulty getting to sleep and difficulty remaining in sleep. However, insomnia is often used to describe a wide range of sleep disorders.

Insomnia can last just a few days or it can become a chronic condition and last for months or even years.  If you find that you are getting insufficient sleep for long periods of time, it could result in problems such as poor performance in work or school, poorly functioning immune system, obesity, depression and even an increased risk of heart attack.

According to the National Sleep Foundation, 34 percent of adults are plagued by some form of insomnia. If you suffer from it, then you are already well-aware of how frustrating it can be when you are unable to fall asleep.

Unfortunately, it is hard to say exactly what causes insomnia, although it is generally thought to be a result of a number of factors combined.

This could include medications, drugs, alcohol, stress or anxiety, medical conditions such as sleep apnea or asthma, or hormones. Jet lag or frequent schedule changes may also cause short-term insomnia. People who often suffer from this type of insomnia are those who work night shifts, such as nurses or stewardesses.

In some cases, insufficient exercise is also thought to be the cause of insomnia. If you work at a desk job for example, where you sit in one place all day, you may be more prone to insomnia. To counter this, you could try walking or cycling to work. If that is not an option, you should try to get some form of exercise when you get home.

Short-term insomnia, although frustrating, is not as serious as chronic insomnia, and can usually be remedied by some lifestyle changes. However, a Norwegian study that was carried out at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, found that in the long-term, people who suffer from sleep disorders are nearly 45 percent more likely to suffer a heart attack than those who never have trouble going to sleep or remaining asleep.

Insomnia can last just a few days or it can become a chronic condition and last for months or even years.

The study was carried out over the duration of 11 years, during which the 52,610 subjects were observed and their sleeping habits, such as how often they had trouble falling asleep and how often they woke up throughout the night, were monitored.

Although it is generally believed that psychiatric disorders such as depression may cause insomnia, some scientists are of the opinion that it is actually the other way around. A study carried out by the National Institute of Mental Health found that individuals who suffer from insomnia have a 39 percent higher risk of developing depression than those who sleep normally at night.

Indeed, this does seem to make sense, because anyone who is severely sleep deprived and operating on three or less hours of sleep a night is bound to become a bit unbalanced in the long run.

So now that you know the danger of leaving your insomnia unchecked, you are likely wondering what you should be doing about it. If you prefer to take a more natural route and stay away from sleeping drugs, the first thing you should do is try to identify why you are having trouble getting to sleep at night, or waking up throughout.

Do you leave in a noisy neighborhood? Some sleep therapists suggest keeping a fan on during the night to minimize the variety of noises you hear. Are you getting enough physical exercise throughout the day? Do you drink a lot of caffeine? Maybe you are under a lot of stress? Often, changing one or two of these things can make a big difference in how well you sleep at night.

Of course, not all insomnia is solved as easily as this, but if you are determined to beat the bedtime blues, then try some of the following tried-and-proven tips to start sleeping more peacefully.

Consume a Light Snack Before Going to Bed

Many people swear by this technique and it is often recommended by sleep therapists. The general advice is to consume a 150-200 calorie snack before heading to bed. The idea behind this is that it will combat the low blood sugar that usually follows a long night without food.

Take an Icy Bath

Although this may seem rather extreme, it is thought to be an effective way to trigger sleep. You would think that immersing yourself in a tub of cold water would have the opposite effect, but according to some professors at Stanford, this method works to regulate and speed up the amount of time it takes you to fall asleep. Just be sure to do it about an hour before you actually plan on going to bed, or the adrenalin response to the cold water will keep you up.

Eat Your Meals at Regular Times Throughout The Day

You probably already knew that maintaining a regular sleeping schedule was better for you, but apparently, how regular your meals are also plays a part in how well you sleep at night.

Take Timed Naps

Because of the different sleep cycles, it is very important to regulate the length of your naps. You probably experienced the after-nap effect at some point, where you feel worse when you wake up than when you went to sleep. The reason for this is that you probably woke up in the middle of restorative sleep, which can be disorienting. Researchers suggest sleeping for periods of 20 minutes if you want a short nap. For longer naps, 90 minutes is said to be the correct amount of time.

One thing you should never do when you are trying to go to sleep, is think about how you can’t get to sleep. While this may seem like an impossible task, you probably know from experience that the more you try to make yourself fall asleep the less likely it is to happen. If you find yourself laying awake thinking about falling asleep, it is best to get up and do something until you feel sleepy.

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If you have ever engaged in any high energy cardio workouts or gone for a run, then you will be familiar with the fatigue that inevitably sets in, usually sooner than you would like. The amount of time a person can carry on until fatigue sets in varies from person to person, and you have probably noticed that after you kept your exercise routine up for some time, your endurance got better and it took longer for that exhaustion to hit you.

But, what if you were not actually overtired, and that exhaustion you felt was simply your brain telling you to slow down so as not to over exert yourself? According to Tim Noakes, professor of exercise and sports science at the University of Cape Town, a process exists in the brain that controls how much physical activity you can undertake in order to protect your heart from overexerting itself.

This proposed process is called the Central Governor and, if true, could mean that the concept of mind over body is more real than you might have previously thought. Noakes believes that the Central Governor limits the amount of exercise a person can do by reducing the neural recruitment of muscle fibers, which causes a feeling of extreme fatigue.

Although Noakes’ hypothesis about the central governor was initially proposed in 1997 to explain why athletes feel such exhaustion after running a marathon, it has since been applied to other cases of extreme fatigue.

Noakes was not the first to propose this idea, as in 1924 a similar concept was suggested by the Nobel Prize winner Archibald Hill. He was of the opinion that there is a mechanism in the body that regulates a high degree of saturation within the blood, thus acting as a “governor.”

Hill’s hypothesis was disregarded, however, and researchers turned to other evidence suggesting that exercise fatigue is caused by failure of the muscles due to inadequate oxygen, lactic acid build-up or lack of energy in the overworked muscles.

…pushing your body past its “limit” does not put you at risk of depleting your body’s resources…

The Central Governor hypothesis remains controversial to this day and has received much criticism within the scientific community for going against commonly accepted scientific theories such as peripheral “limitation” or “catastrophe.”

Noakes’ teachings have already attracted a following, however, and a number of trainers have begun adopting his theories in their training methods, ignoring conventional wisdom about things like drinking large amounts of water during marathons and consuming additional carbohydrates beforehand.

Running coach and author of “Brain Training for Runners,” Matt Fitzgerald, is a firm believer in the power of mind over body, and uses training methods that are aimed at the brain rather than the body. Fitzgerald believes that when his trainees complain of tired muscles, what they are really experiencing is a signal from their brain that is telling them to slow down.

In his training, he tries to help people to move beyond that and push through despite the signals they are receiving from their brain. The goal of this type of training is to get the brain to adapt, because as you push yourself harder, your brain will begin to see that the body can survive the tough conditions and you will slowly begin to evolve and improve past your initial limitations.

According to the Central Governor theory, pushing your body past its “limit” does not put you at risk of depleting your body’s resources, because the brain tells your body to slow down long before the muscles have run out of energy or oxygen.

A number of physiologists disagree with this, however, stating that although the brain does play a role in the body’s endurance levels, there is only so much oxygen the body can take in during exercise, and pushing on when the muscles are not receiving enough oxygen could be dangerous.

In a related study that was carried out at the University of Zurich, researchers found that there does in fact appear to be a direct link between muscle fatigue and the brain. The researchers discovered a mechanism in the brain that seems to prevent the muscles from performing past the body’s physiological limit.

During the study, a group of volunteers was asked to perform repeated thigh contractions until they felt they could not muster the strength to continue. While they performed their thigh contractions, the scientists measured the nerve impulses from the muscles. They found that when the volunteers performed these exercises under spinal aesthesia, the signals from the brain became weaker and the volunteers were able to carry on longer.

In another part of the same study, the scientists found that certain inhibitory impulses from the brain are regulated through the insular cortex. The scientists monitored the activity between the brain and the muscles while the subjects cycled.

They found that the activity greatly increased and became more intensive as the subjects’ fatigue intensified, showing that the neuronal system informs the brain, which allows the brain to regulate how much physical activity a person can undertake at one time.

Whether or not the Central Governor is the sole reason that intense physical exercise causes your muscles to throw in the towel is not yet known, but this study clearly shows that there is a link between physical activity and the brain.

So, if you want to evolve and see your endurance levels increase rapidly, then it is important that you learn to push yourself a little harder with every training session. Your body will begin to adapt to its newly found abilities and those signs of fatigue will come later.

This may not seem like anything new to experienced athletes, after all, every professional knows that you have to train regularly and intensively in order to attain and maintain the highest possible level of fitness.

But, many newbies start a fitness regime with high hopes, only to find themselves disappointed when they don’t attain the promised results. Why? Because they are operating within their physical limitations rather than pushing harder and getting stronger.

Of course, you shouldn’t go overboard and train till you pass out. But, if you learn to recognize that you actually have a lot left to give when your brain begins sending you those initial signals of fatigue, you will find that your body is capable of doing far more than you ever thought was possible.